As our pets eat their food, it passes from the stomach and into the small intestine. Whilst some of the digestive processes have already started, most of the chemical digestion that occurs in the small intestine relies on the activities of the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. Let’s take a closer look at the function of the pancreas and its role in our pet’s digestion. What is the Pancreas? The pancreas is a gland found in the digestive system of our pet. It is made up of a head, a body and a pointy tail-like end. It is in the upper abdomen behind the stomach and carries out two main roles in the body: The pancreas produces: Enzymes that break down foods in the intestine Hormones that regulate blood sugar levels The pancreas is made up of small clusters of glandular epithelial cells. About 99% of these clusters constitute the exocrine portion of the organ. These cells secrete a mixture of fluid and digestive enzymes known as pancreatic juice. Pancreatic juice consists mostly of water, but it also contains some salts, sodium bicarbonate and several enzymes. The sodium bicarbonate gives the pancreatic juice a slight alkalinity that buffers the stomach acid in the chyme that has just arrived in the small intestine. It also stops the action of pepsin and creates the correct pH for the action of the digestive enzymes to function. The digestive juices that are made in the pancreas flow into the small intestine through a tube known as the pancreatic duct. In most bodies, this duct is joined by a similar duct coming from the gallbladder (the bile duct) before it reaches the small intestine. There is a circular muscle (sphincter) at the shared opening of the two ducts. This muscle controls the release of the digestive juices into the small intestine. The digestive juices usually only start working once they enter the small intestine. But if the pancreas is inflamed (pancreatitis), they already become active in the pancreas. This can start causing a range of issues. Digestive Enzymes Enzymes are biological molecules (typically proteins) that significantly speed up the rate of virtually all of the chemical reactions that take place within cells. When discussing the pancreas, there are three main types of enzymes: Lipases to break down fats Proteases to break down proteins Amylases to break down starch The remaining 1% of the clusters called pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) form the endocrine portion of the pancreas. These cells secrete the hormones glucagon, insulin and more. These hormones usually help to regulate blood glucose levels, stopping them from getting too high or too low. Glucose Regulation Glucose is a 6-carbon structure with the chemical formula C6H12O6. It is a source of energy for every organism in the world and is essential to fuel both aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration. Glucose often enters the body in isometric forms such as galactose and fructose (monosaccharides), lactose and sucrose (disaccharides), or starch (polysaccharide). The body stores excess glucose as glycogen, which becomes liberated in times of fasting. Glucose is also derivable from products of fat and protein break-down through the process of gluconeogenesis. Once glucose is in the body, it travels through the blood and to energy-requiring tissues. There, glucose is broken down in a series of biochemical reactions releasing energy in the form of ATP. The ATP derived from these processes is used to fuel virtually every energy-requiring process in the body. As glucose is so important to life, it stands to reason that regulation of it is incredibly tight. And as we have noted, there are a number of hormones involved in this process. Hormones involved in Glucose Regulation Hormones Involved: Insulin is a peptide hormone. Insulin plays an important role to keep plasma glucose value within a relatively narrow range throughout the day. Insulin’s main actions are: (1) In the liver, insulin promotes glycolysis and storage of glucose as glycogen (glycogenesis), as well as conversion of glucose to triglycerides (2) In muscle, insulin promotes the uptake of glucose and its storage as glycogen (3) in adipose tissue, insulin promotes uptake of glucose and its conversion to triglycerides for storage Insulin lowers glucose levels. Glucagon: Glucagon acts exclusively on the liver to antagonise insulin effects on hepatocytes. It enhances glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. It also promotes oxidation of fat, which can lead to the formation of ketone bodies. Glucagon increases glucose levels. Levels of both insulin and glucagon vary depending on nutrient intake. The Fed State: The fed state occurs after a meal and is also known as the absorptive state. It is characterised by a high insulin to glucagon ratio. Anabolic metabolism dominates in the fed state largely to replenish fuel stores, this is achieved by glycogen synthesis, fatty acid synthesis and protein and amino acid metabolism. The Fasting State: The fasting state occurs between meals and ensures a maintenance of blood glucose level. This state is characterised by a low insulin to glucagon ratio. This low insulin to glucagon ratio overall promotes catabolism in comparison to the fed state. In this state the major pathways include gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, protein catabolism, lipolysis, and ketone body metabolism Endocrine cells secrete these respective hormones in response to external signals, such as nutrient intake or stress, via humoral, neural or hormonal signalling pathways. The Brain-Islet Axis The pancreas is highly innervated with both parasympathetic and sympathetic nerve fibres from the autonomic nervous system. At the same time, insulin receptors are widely distributed within the brain. In rat studies, lesions in various brain regions were shown to affect pancreatic hormone secretion. Norepinephrine also inhibits insulin secretion, which is an important aspect of the fight-or-flight response. Insulin release is stimulated by the cephalic phase, which is the period of anticipating a meal, to prepare the body to adequately respond to incoming nutrients. The Liver-Islet Axis The liver has a key role in glucose homeostasis by storing (glycogenesis) or releasing (glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis) glucose. Liver Guard The Gut-Islet Axis The gut releases various
We call eggs a reference protein for good reason, they contain all essential amino acids. Eggs are a nutrient dense food, not only packed with protein but a range of micronutrients too. As we work with raw diets as well as cooked, one of the questions we are asked all the time is whether raw eggs are safe for dogs. So, let’s settle it once and for all. Eggs are high in quality protein, they contain healthy fats, vitamins, minerals, eye protecting antioxidants and various other nutrients; One whole, large raw egg contains protein: 6 grams fat: 5 grams magnesium: 6 mg calcium: 28 mg phosphorus: 99 mg potassium: 69 mg vitamin D: 41 IU One large egg also contains 147mg of choline which is the precursor to acetylcholine, a key player in nervous system function. Eggs are high in lutein and zeaxanthin which are antioxidants involved in eye health. Does Raw Egg Hinder Nutrient Absorption? Egg yolks provide a good dietary source of biotin and raw egg whites contain a protein called avidin. Avidin is known to bind to biotin in the small intestine, preventing its absorption. We first found this in rats in the early 1900s. When rats were fed egg-white protein containing avidin, the biotin was biologically unavailable. This resulted in a syndrome of dermatitis, hair loss, and neuromuscular dysfunction known as “egg-white injury.” What is Biotin? Biotin is an essential water-soluble vitamin. It is also known as vitamin B-7 or vitamin H, in which case the H stands for “Haar und Haut,” the German words for “hair and skin.” Biotin is necessary for the function of several enzymes known as carboxylases. These are part of important metabolic processes, such as the production of glucose and fatty acids. Specifically, biotin is involved in: Gluconeogenesis: This is the synthesis of glucose from sources other than carbohydrates, such as amino acids/ Biotin-containing enzymes help initiate this process. Fatty acid synthesis: Biotin assists enzymes that activate reactions that are important for the production of fatty acids. Amino acid breakdown: Biotin-containing enzymes are involved in the metabolism of several important amino acids, including leucine. Research has shown biotin deficiency will result in abnormal fatty acid metabolism, which may be responsible for the pathogenesis of dermatitis and alopecia. Interestingly, supplementation of biotin-deficient rats with omega-6 polyunsaturated acids prevented the development of dermatitis, which indicated that an abnormality in n-6 PUFA metabolism is involved in biotin deficiency-related dermatitis (and perhaps not completely laying the blame at biotin per se). Other schools of thought relating to biotin-deficiency alopecia is the role of the microbiota in the gut. Free biotin may influence the composition of the gut microbiota because biotin is necessary for the growth and survival of the microbiota. Biotin deficiency leads to gut dysbiosis and the overgrowth of Lactobacillus murinus, leading to the development of alopecia. This is further compounded with co-administration of antibiotics. Furthermore, vitamin B7 production appears to proceed in a cooperative manner among different intestinal bacteria; Bifidobacterium longum in the intestine produces pimelate, which is a precursor of vitamin B7 that enhances vitamin B7 production by other intestinal bacteria. Based on this data you would be forgiven for thinking that raw eggs are a poor dietary choice because of the potential to cause a biotin-deficiency, but is this accurate? We established a biotin-deficiency using rats. We must remember that rats have no dietary requirement for biotin because it is provided by intestinal microorganisms through coprophagy. To this end there are four ways to produce a biotin deficiency in rats fed a biotin-deficient diet. use germ free animals prevent coprophagy feed sulfa drugs feed raw egg whites To achieve a biotin deficiency state, 20% raw egg whites as the source of protein was fed. Findings Here Whilst our dogs may like eggs, its unlikely that 20% of their diet will consist of them. Salmonella Poisoning Raw and undercooked eggs may contain Salmonella, a type of bacteria. Salmonella contamination can happen in one of two ways: either directly during the formation of an egg inside the hen indirectly when Salmonella contaminates the outside of the egg and penetrates through the shell membrane Indirect contamination can happen during the production process, during handling, or during preparation. In commercial egg sales, pasteurisation is one method that is often employed to prevent the possibility of Salmonella contamination. This process uses a heating treatment to reduce the number of bacteria and other microorganisms in foods. But where you source your eggs from is a more obvious consideration to make here. A review of risk factors for Salmonella in laying hens revealed that overall evidence points to a lower occurrence in non-cage compared to cage systems. There is also conclusive evidence that an increased stocking density, larger farms and stress result in increased occurrence, persistence and spread of Salmonella in laying hen flock. Findings Here So, opt for free range and organic raised hens to source your eggs from to reduce the risk of bacterial contamination. The bottom line? Eggs are nutritious whether you opt for cooked or raw. There may be compromised nutrient absorption, but this only occurs when significant quantities are eaten. Moderation is key and opt for free range and organic wherever possible. And yes, the shells can be eaten too. Thanks for reading, MPN Team
When we talk about inflammation, we generally see it as something bad and something we need to get rid of. But like all things ours and our pet’s body does, it serves a purpose. Despite this, there is a difference between acute and chronic inflammation. So, let’s get to grips with the purpose of inflammation, what causes it and when it becomes problematic. We’ll also take a look at some nutrition tips to help modulate this response. What is Inflammation? Inflammation is part of the body’s defence mechanism. It is the process by which the immune system recognises and removes harmful and foreign stimuli and begins the healing process. The immune system senses something is wrong and sends its soldier immune cells to tackle the issue, which is why the hallmark signs of inflammation; heat, redness, swelling and pain occur. Inflammation can be either acute or chronic. Acute Inflammation Tissue damage due to trauma, microbial invasion, or noxious compounds can induce acute inflammation. It starts rapidly, becomes severe in a short time and symptoms may last for a few days, an example is bacterial infection. Chronic Inflammation Chronic inflammation is also referred to as slow, long-term inflammation lasting for prolonged periods of several months to years. Generally, the extent and effects of chronic inflammation vary with the cause of the injury and the ability of the body to repair and overcome the damage. For the most part, acute inflammation serves a purpose, and the issue is resolved. Chronic inflammation is what becomes the issue. Chronic inflammation can be a result of the following: Failure of eliminating the agent causing an acute inflammation like a recurrent infection or exposure to an allergen. Exposure to a low level of a particular irritant or foreign material that cannot be eliminated by enzymatic breakdown or phagocytosis in the body. An autoimmune disorder in which the immune system recognizes the normal component of the body as a foreign antigen and attacks healthy tissue. A defect in the cells responsible for mediating inflammation leading to persistent or recurrent inflammation. Inflammatory and biochemical inducers resulting in oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction such as increased production of free radical molecules, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), uric acid (urate) crystals, oxidized lipoproteins, and homocysteine. Factors that may increase the risk of chronic inflammation include: Ageing Increasing age is associated with elevated levels of inflammatory markers – this could be due to mitochondrial dysfunction or free radical accumulation over time. Obesity Fat tissue is often described as an endocrine organ. It secretes multiple adipokines and inflammatory mediators. There is increasing data showing that the adiposity correlates with levels of pro- inflammatory markers. Diets high in saturated fats This is increased further in those who are obese. Low sex hormones Data has indicated that testosterone and oestrogen can suppress the production of pro-inflammatory markers – so when there are low levels (in the case of neutered pets) inflammation can increase. Findings Here Stress Physical and emotional stress is associated with inflammatory cytokine release – which is why the modulator of the stress response, cortisol is deemed anti-inflammatory. However, prolonged stress can result in cortisol dysfunction. It is thought that cortisol binding is downregulated, and it fails to function. In humans, stress-induced inflammation has been linked to a range of chronic conditions like osteoporosis, myopathy, sciatica and more. Findings Here Poor sleep/recovery Again, cortisol plays a role here. There is a natural diurnal cortisol in dogs. You will see a natural rise in cortisol in the morning, with it progressively dropping throughout the day. Dogs are similar to humans in this respect. If sleep is disrupted or our dogs are unable to follow their diurnal rhythms, cortisol levels can become dysfunctional. Study after study have highlighted that poor sleep is associated with higher levels of inflammatory biomarkers. Findings Here The Importance of Sleep Dietary sensitivities/allergens What goes on in the gut doesn’t always stay in the gut and translocation can occur across the gut wall. This means that particles end up in places they shouldn’t, calling the immune system to action. 7 steps to Optimal Gut Health in Pets Signs of Chronic Inflammation: Body pain Anxiety/depression Gastrointestinal issues like constipation, diarrhoea, and acid reflux Unintended weight gain/loss Frequent infections It is crucial to understand the driver of chronic inflammation, and assessment from a qualified practitioner will be necessary here. But in managing chronic inflammation there are some beneficial changes that can be made: Top Tips: limit intake of ultra-processed foods ensure an appropriate body weight Obesity in Pets Part One Part Two – high intake of dietary fibre is associated with lower inflammatory markers – increase intake of fruits and vegetables – blueberries, apples, brussels sprouts, and broccoli are all high in natural antioxidants and polyphenols which may help protect against inflammation. Does My Dog Need Antioxidants? – Curcumin – significant improvements are noted in inflammatory models in animals when administered turmeric. – Omega-3s – increased intake of omega-3 is associated with lower levels of many inflammatory markers. Essential Fats For My Dog’s Diet – Micronutrients – magnesium, vitamin D, vitamin E, zinc and selenium levels are all associated with inflammatory markers. They all exert inflammatory modulating effects in the body. The Importance of Vitamin D for Cats and Dogs Why Does My Dog Need Minerals? Why Zinc is Important for Your Dog Acute inflammation is necessary, and it is a process by which the body returns to homeostasis. The issue is when inflammation becomes chronic, and we know there are several reasons why this may occur. It’s essential to understand the contributing factors to chronic inflammation, but there are lifestyle changes that can help. Check out our services if you’d like to see how we can help. Thanks for reading, MPN Team
Epilepsy is the most common chronic neurological disorder in dogs, with a formerly reported prevalence of between 0.5% and 5% in the canine population. Epilepsy is not one single disease process but can be elicited by multiple causes and can be classified as genetic (primary or idiopathic), structural and of unknown origin/etiology. Let’s get to grips with what it is and some of the causes. What is Epilepsy? Epilepsy occurs naturally in many species including rodents, cats, dogs, horses, cattle, goats, non-human and human primates. It is the most common acquired chronic neurological disorder in humans having a a worldwide incidence of approximately 50–100 cases per 100,000 persons (higher in undeveloped countries) and a prevalence of 4–10 per 1000 persons. In humans there are over forty epileptic syndromes and related conditions. In dogs, however, epilepsy is not usually differentiated into syndromes. Most dogs with recurrent seizures have no identifiable underlying cause and are classified as having idiopathic epilepsy. The lack of canine epilepsy classification may be due to the difficulty of seizure description and classification, and partly because electroencephalography (EEG) is not routinely used in veterinary neurology clinics. To that end, we simply define epilepsy as a chronic neurological condition characterised by recurrent epileptic seizures. Idiopathic epilepsy in dogs Most dogs with recurrent seizures are thought to have idiopathic epilepsy, in short, no underlying cause of the seizure can be identified. In these cases the first seizure usually occurs between 6 months and 6 years of age, but occasionally seizures have been known to start as young as 3 months and as late as 10 years of age. There appears to be a hereditary basis for idiopathic epilepsy, with several breeds being affected: Beagles German Shepherds Labrador Retrievers Golden Retrievers Bernese Mountain Dog Viszlas Keeshonds English Springer Spaniel Recently a mutation found on the Epm2b gene has shown to be causal in miniature wire-haired dachshunds. The Theory of Epilepsy The pathophysiology of epilepsy is often suggested to be an imbalance between excitation and inhibition in neurotransmitters; increased excitation or decreased inhibition may lead to epileptiform activity in the brain. It is considered that there is a fine balance between the excitatory glutamate neurotransmitter and the inhibitory GABA neurotransmitter. This theory has been tested in dogs and researchers found significantly less GABA and more glutamate in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) from epileptic patients when compared to normal controls. Sadly, there appears to be a double-edged sword too, many receptors in the brain undergo altered expression following seizures and this may lead to changes in excitability of the brain and be involved in further pathogenesis of seizure disorders. Temporal Lobe Epilepsy In Dogs Temporal lobe epilepsy is the most common partial seizure disorder in adult humans and there are reports of it occurring in dogs. It has also been suggested that “fly-biting” or “fly-catching”, a behaviour in which dogs snap aimlessly into the air as if trying to catch a fly, may have a temporal lobe origin. Treatment Since epilepsy is often associated with inhibition and excitation in the brain, antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are used to alter the excitability of the brain and aim to reset the balance. There are many mechanisms thought to be involved in the action of antiepileptic drugs. They may functionally block voltage-gated sodium channels They may directly or indirectly enhance inhibitory GABAergic transmission They can inhibit excitatory glutamatergic neurotransmission They can modulate calcium ion channels Vagus Nerve Stimulation The method used in humans was devised in canine models and has since been used with mixed results. It is based on the idea that repetitive electrical stimulation of the canine cervical vagus nerve interrupts or abolishes motor seizures. Findings Here Epilepsy and Diet The Keto Diet The ketogenic diet—a high‐fat, low carbohydrate, and moderate protein protocol—has been used to treat epilepsy for nearly 100 years in both children and adults. A randomised controlled trial on childhood epilepsy showed promising results with 38 and 7 % of children on KD diets having >50 and 90 % seizure reduction, respectively. In comparison, only 6 % of the children on control diets achieved >50 % seizure reduction, with no children achieving >90 % seizure reduction. Findings Here It therefore makes sense that a ketogenic diet has been considered for use in dogs. One study of 21 dogs found that seizures were reduced significantly in dogs fed a proprietary ketogenic diet for 3 months. No improvement was seen in dogs fed a standard diet for the same duration. For 3 subjects, seizures appeared to stop entirely, demonstrating a 100% reduction in seizure frequency. In 7 dogs, seizures decreased by at least 50%, and another 5 dogs experienced a lower seizure frequency overall. Findings Here A Whistle Stop Tour of Keto A Keto Diet for Pet Cancer Omega-3 Supplementation Omega-3 fatty acid deficiency has an interesting role in seizure outcome. It is thought that Omega-3 fatty acids can enhance GABAergic transmission in animals with epilepsy by stimulating the formation of new hippocampal interneurons or by altering expression of calcium-binding proteins. When trialled in a patient with drug-resistant epilepsy, seizures reduced by 85%. Findings Here Essential Fats For My Dog’s Diet Epilepsy and Allergy In humans there are a number of reports that associate allergy with epilepsy. For example, children with allergic symptoms have a 76% increased subsequent risk of epilepsy. It has been found that in these individuals, hypoallergenic diets can reduce the frequency of seizures. Again, we must consider that this may apply to dogs. One study followed dogs with allergic disease. It included eight refractory epileptic dogs and seven were found to have gastrointestinal or skin allergies in conjunction with their refractory seizures. Introduction of an exclusion diet reduced seizures to an “acceptable level” in seven out of eight dogs. Behavioural abnormalities associated with seizures were eliminated in all cases. Findings Here Elimination Diets For Dogs Epileptogenic Toxins Many researchers posit that it’s not only certain foods that are epileptogenic, but toxins can also be problematic. Whilst we’re not talking
There are two branches of science that help us understand both ours and our pet’s bodies. Anatomy is the science of body structures and the relationships amongst them. We learned about anatomy through dissection – we carefully cut up body structures to see what they looked like and the relationship they had with those around them. Physiology is the science of body functions -in short how those body parts and structures work. Both branches have sub-branches, for example we may be interested in pathological anatomy – the structural changes associated with disease. In this blog, we are going to take a look at renal physiology – in short, the function of the kidneys. The Urinary System The kidneys form part of the urinary system and overall, this system consists of: Two kidneys Two ureters One urinary bladder One urethra As body cells carry out metabolic activities they consume oxygen and nutrients. During this process, waste products are made. These waste products must be eliminated from the body because if they are left to accumulate, they can become toxic. Just like the respiratory system eliminates carbon dioxide, the urinary system picks up these waste products. But this is not the only function of the urinary system. Functions of the Kidneys Excretion of wastes: By forming urine, the kidneys help excrete waste from the body. Some of these are a result of metabolic processes, like urea and ammonia, which is as a result of the deamination of amino acids, but it also includes creatinine which is a result of breaking down creatine phosphate. Finally, it includes uric acid from the catabolism of nucleic acids. These compounds are all known as nitrogenous wastes as they are wastes that contain nitrogen. The remainder of wastes are foreign substances that have entered the body, like medications and environmental toxins. This is why we look at kidney health when considering the toxins our dogs must break down. Does My Pet Need to Detox? Regulation of blood composition: The kidneys help regulate the blood levels of several ions including sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, and phosphate. This is achieved by controlling the excretion of said ions into urine. Why Does My Dog Need Minerals? Regulation of blood pH: The kidneys excrete a variable amount of hydrogen ions into the urine and conserve bicarbonate ions which are an important buffer of hydrogen in the blood. Both of these activities help regulate blood pH. Regulation of blood volume: The kidneys adjust blood volume by conserving or eliminating water in the urine. An increase in blood volume increases blood pressure and a decrease in blood volume decreases blood pressure. Regulation of blood pressure: The kidneys secrete the enzyme renin which activates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway. Increased renin increases blood pressure. Production of hormones: The kidneys produce two hormones, calcitriol helps regulate calcium homeostasis and erythropoietin stimulates the production of red blood cells. Regulation of blood glucose level: Like the liver, the kidneys can use certain amino acids like glutamine in gluconeogenesis, which is the production of new glucose molecules. They can then release glucose into the blood to help maintain a normal blood glucose level. The Contributions of The Urinary System for All Body Systems Skeletal System The kidneys help adjust levels of blood calcium and phosphates needed for building extracellular bone matrix. Nutrition for Bone and Joint Health Muscular System The kidneys help adjust calcium levels for contraction of muscle. Nervous System Through the process of gluconeogenesis, the kidneys provide glucose for ATP production in neurons, especially during fasting or starvation. Endocrine System The kidneys participate in the synthesis of calcitriol, the active form of Vitamin D. They also release erythropoietin which is the hormone that stimulates the production of red blood cells. Cardiovascular System As noted previously, the kidneys play a key role in the regulation of blood volume, pressure, and composition. Lymphatic System and Immune Function By increasing or decreasing their reabsorption of water filtered from blood, kidneys help adjust volume of interstitial fluid and lymph. Urine also flushes microbes out of the urethra. Respiratory System The kidneys and lungs cooperate by adjusting pH of body fluids. When Should I be Worried About My Dog Panting? Digestive System As we have mentioned, the kidneys synthesise calcitriol which is the active form of vitamin D. This is necessary for the absorption of dietary calcium. Ageing and the Urinary System With ageing, kidneys do shrink in size; they have decreased blood flow and filter less blood. These age-related changes seem to be linked to a reduction in blood supply to the kidneys for example, with age, blood vessels such as the glomeruli become damaged or decrease in number. There is also a natural decrease in thirst drive with age which brings the added risk of dehydration. Urinary bladder changes include a reduction in size and capacity, along with a weakening of the muscles. This is why urinary tract infections, increased frequency of urination and urinary retention or incontinence becomes an issue with age. It would be easy to conclude that the kidneys main job is to excrete waste, but as you can see, the kidneys contribute to many other body system functions. In addition, they are not the only tissues, organs or systems that handle body wastes. Waste Handling Systems Blood The bloodstream provides a pick-up and delivery service for the transport of wastes, we can think of the bloodstream as our bin wagons. Liver The liver is the primary site for metabolic recycling. The liver rearranges amino acids into other proteins, and also converts them into glucose. The liver also converts toxic substances into less toxic ones. Lungs With each exhalation, the lungs excrete carbon dioxide, along with heat and a little water vapour. Gastrointestinal Tract Through defecation the gastrointestinal tract excretes waste, whether it is undigested foods or metabolic waste products. The kidneys play a number of roles in health, and therefore disease. If you would like to learn more about kidney function and some of our top
It can feel like we are bombarded with information to boost our immune function, and as immune system health is key to survival, this seems like something we should be interested in. We also talk about immune responses a lot here at My Pet Nutritionist, so should we be boosting our pet’s immune systems too? What if we told you that immune boosting isn’t really something we want to do? Read on to find out why we believe immune boosting is a myth. The Immune System When the body is invaded by bacteria, a virus or parasites, an immune alarm goes off, setting off a chain reaction of cellular activity in the immune system. Specific cells are deployed to help attack the invading pathogen. Those cells often do the job, and the invader is destroyed. But sometimes, when the body needs a more sophisticated attack, it turns to a more specialised set of cells. These cells are like the special ops of the immune system—a line of defence that uses past behaviours and interactions to tell it exactly how to deal with the threat. The immune system is responsible for all of this, and not surprisingly is has many systems to mobilise action. We tend to explore the immune system in terms of innate immunity and adaptive or acquired immunity. Innate immunity is what everyone is born with – it’s a type of general protection. Acquired (adaptive or specific) immunity is not present at birth. It is learned. It’s easy to consider the immune system as an “us against the germ” fight, it’s also easy to think of the immune system as binary. There are either threats, or there aren’t. But how do we figure out what aren’t threats? This is where the concept of immune tolerance comes in. Immune Tolerance Immune tolerance is an active state of unresponsiveness to specific antigens in an effort to prevent destructive over-reactivity of the immune system. It prevents an immune response to antigens produced by the body itself or recognised from a prior encounter. It’s Evolutionary Immune tolerance is an evolutionary benefit – mounting an immune response is resource demanding, and sometimes brings some collateral damage with it. If tolerating an antigen conserves resources and doesn’t result in overt threat or damage, then it makes biological sense to do so. There are two types of immune tolerance: self-tolerance and induced tolerance. Self-tolerance refers to the ability of the immune system to recognize and therefore not respond to self-produced antigens. If the immune system loses this ability, the body can start to attack its own cells, which may cause an autoimmune disease. Induced tolerance occurs when the immune system actively avoids responding to an external antigen. This tolerance is induced by previous encounters with that antigen. Immune tolerance mechanisms are separated into two categories: central tolerance and peripheral tolerance. Central tolerance occurs during lymphocyte development in the thymus and bone marrow. In short, if any developing T or B cells become reactive to self, they are eliminated. Peripheral tolerance mechanisms occur after mature lymphocytes are released into the lymph nodes or other tissues. When T cells that are reactive-to-self escape into the periphery, this mechanism ensures they are either deleted or they become functionally unresponsive to the antigen. The Immune System as A Seesaw We can think of the immune system as a seesaw and immune responses need to be balanced. Immune tolerance helps balance the seesaw as our pet’s make their way through life. It is different from non-specific immunosuppression and immunodeficiency. Immune tolerance prevents inflammatory reactions to many innocuous airborne and food allergens found at mucosal surfaces (and more). How is Immune Tolerance Developed? Immune tolerance is only induced via exposure to the antigen in question and it is thought that the timing of this exposure is crucial. This is where the hygiene hypothesis has been largely considered. The Hygiene Hypothesis Early exposure to a diverse range of “friendly” microbes—not infectious pathogens—is necessary to train the immune system to react appropriately. The immune system is like a computer; it has software, but it needs data. The microbial ecosystem in various mucosal sites is important for the development of the immune system. The young gastrointestinal tract is colonised soon after birth by a variety of commensal bacteria that influence the development of the immune response both in the gut and systemically. The mucosal immune system in the gut must avoid adverse immune responses to dietary antigens and commensals in the new microbial ecosystem while remaining able to mount an effector response to pathogenic organisms. In an ideal world, our pets will develop a heathy immune system, and they will have sufficient immune tolerance but also eliminate threats when necessary. But we don’t always live in an ideal world, and so loss of tolerance, along with excessive tolerance can occur. Loss of Tolerance Loss of tolerance results in an overt immune response. This could be in the case of allergy, but also autoimmunity. T and B lymphocytes are key players for immune responses, and during the T and B lymphocyte differentiation process, the regulation of each progression step is influenced by a potent network of transcription factors specific for each cellular state. Recent studies indicate that both T and B lymphocyte development are under epigenetic regulations which suggests a genetic consideration in immune function, but that modifiable lifestyle changes could influence gene expression. Environmental factors, such as ultraviolet rays, infections, nutrition, and chemicals, also participate in the pathogenesis of both allergies and autoimmunity. Excessive Tolerance Excessive tolerance may lead to invasion by microorganisms or parasites, or to development of cancer. The Immunity Boosting Myth This idea of immune tolerance is in opposition to immune boosting. Ideally, we want an immune seesaw. We want responses to be balanced to whatever they are facing, not boosted and over-zealous and likewise, not lazy! We want an immune system that has 20/20 vision. So, how do we support this in our pets? Exposure to bugs – let
We often talk about the highway between the gut and the brain, but it is probably more appropriate to think of the gut like a roundabout. If you live anywhere other than the UK, a roundabout is a road junction at which traffic moves in one direction around a central island to reach one of the roads converging onto it. In short, you have a number of roads branching off. We are learning more about the gut’s impact on the body every day, and along with a gut-immune axis, (one road off the roundabout), the gut-brain axis (another road off the roundabout), we also have a gut-skin axis. The gut-skin axis is becoming intertwined in a range of inflammatory skin issues in humans, and as our dogs also sadly suffer with many inflammatory skin issues, here at My Pet Nutritionist, we think the Gut-Skin Axis is worth exploring. So, let’s get cracking. The Skin The skin is the largest organ of your dog’s body. It consists of three major layers: The Epidermis – (Epi – upon or above) this is the outer layer of skin, the protective layer. The Dermis – the dermis supports and nourishes the outer layer. It provides strength and elasticity. Here you will find collagen fibres, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hair follicles. You will also find cells that release histamine and other inflammatory mediators when faced with an allergy or injury. The Subcutis – (sub meaning under or below) this in the innermost layer of the skin, where you will find fat and muscles. Subcutaneous fat provides insulation, padding and storage for reserve energy. Not only does the structure of the skin prevent water and electrolyte loss to help maintain body homeostasis, but it forms a protective barrier which helps protect against infections, parasites, and the elements. This is the often-forgotten role of the skin – that it forms part of the immune system. It is this role that largely establishes the connection between the gut and skin. The Gut The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is one of the largest interfaces between the host and its environment, you only have to think of the sheer volume of food and (and other items) that pass through your dog’s GIT in their lifetime. For this reason, it must posses a strong barrier to prevent pathogens reaching the inner workings of the body. Skin Vs. Gut Barrier The gut and skin barrier share surprisingly many features. Both organs are highly innervated and vascularized, as they are both essential for immune and neuroendocrine function. The inner surface of the gut and the outer surface of the skin are both covered by epithelial cells (ECs) which have direct contact with the exogenous environment. This way, the immune system is continuously primed to distinguish between harmful and beneficial compounds. Immune cell priming starts early on in life and forms the basis of tolerance. Your Pet’s Immune System But, both the skin and gut also posses a microbiome and it is this, along with the interplay between them that influences their health. How Does The Gut Affect The Skin? We have largely established the impact the gut has on skin through bacterial supplementation. Study One Mice who received Lactobacillus reuteri supplementation experienced increased dermal thickness, enhanced folliculogenesis, and increased sebocyte production which manifested as thicker, shinier fur. Findings Here Study Two Oral supplementation of Lactobacillus brevis SBC8803 in rats demonstrated a significant decrease in transepidermal water loss, which is a marker of skin barrier function. This was also replicated in humans. Findings Here Study Three Volunteers who took Lactobacillus paracasei NCC2461 supplements for 2 months had decreased skin sensitivity. Findings Here Study Four Another study evaluated the impact of Bifidobacterium breve M-16V and Bifidobacterium longum BB536 administration over the time period of 1 month prenatally, 6 months during infancy, and a period of 18 months follow up on the management of allergic diseases in humans. The study concluded that the incidence of atopic dermatitis was lower in the probiotic administered cases, compared to controls. Findings Here Whilst these studies are promising, there are equally studies which conclude no significant effect on inflammatory skin disease when supplementing probiotics. More and more data is appearing suggesting that clinical significance is largely strain specific, and some studies simply researched the wrong strain. Equally, we understand that inflammatory conditions are multifactorial, and there is no silver bullet. But what these studies do show us is that what goes on in the gut, can influence skin health. We have found that the metabolites found in the gut (those produced from the fermentation of fibre for example) have effects on the gut and the skin. SCFA’s are seen to have anti-inflammatory effects in the gut and in the skin. GABA metabolites modulate neurotransmitter function but also restrict itching in the skin. Dopamine modulates neurotransmitter function but also inhibits hair growth in the skin. Acetylcholine also modulates neurotransmitter function but also influences barrier function in the skin. This is also demonstrated when we look at dietary implications in skin conditions, for example, in cases of atopic dermatitis, diets are frequently low in fruits, vegetables, omega-3 fatty acids and high in omega-6 fatty acids. Findings Here But when we see the comorbidity of skin and gut issues, it’s easy to wonder which came first and what’s super interesting is that we see a bidirectionality. Studies have demonstrated that food allergies may result from an impaired skin barrier: atopic dermatitis sensitizes to peanut allergy due to epicutaneous peanut protein exposure in household dust, leading ultimately to immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated mast cell expansion in the gut. Findings Here Whether the gut or skin comes first, what is clear is that we need to support the health of both. The intestinal and epidermal barriers are connected through systemic circulation (blood and lymph), so healthy circulation is important. This is where appropriate exercise comes in. But avoid over-exercising as this ramps up the stress response in our pets and can be detrimental to the
When we are regularly told as humans that we should increase our fibre intake for health benefits (yes – we really should be getting around 30g per day), it makes sense that we start to wonder whether fibre should be included in our dog’s diet. Here at My Pet Nutritionist we thought we’d explore fibre for the dog in a little more detail. Let’s get cracking. What is Fibre? A carbohydrate is a molecule made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which is why you may often see them noted as CHO. Their primary function is to provide energy. Carbohydrates are made up of three components, fibre, starch, and sugar. Sugar is a simple carb. Having fewer molecules to digest and break down, it sends an immediate burst of glucose into the bloodstream. This is the one that tends to cause a ruckus. Fibre and starch, however, are complex carbs, having longer chains of molecules. Starch takes longer to digest, having a more gradual effect on the body and fibre is a non-digestible complex carbohydrate. If fibre and resistant starch can’t be digested, what happens to it? 1) It Supports Gut Health Fibre gets fermented by the bacteria living in the gut. This produces short-chain-fatty acids, also known as SCFAs. The most common SCFAs produced are acetate, butyrate and propionate and they all have unique roles. They provide fuel for intestinal epithelial cells, which strengthen the gut barrier and butyrate is known for its role keeping the junctions of the barrier nice and tight. Not only that but SCFAs are able to stimulate mucus production, which is vital for creating a barrier between the external environment and the underlying gut epithelial layer. Mucin production plays an important role in protection from harmful pathogens. Findings Here 2) It Supports Brain (and emotional) Health SCFAs also exert effects on the brain. Not only have all examples of SCFAs been found in the brain, suggesting they can cross the blood-brain-barrier, they appear to modulate neurotransmitters and neurotrophic factors. In humans we have seen how certain levels of SCFA’s have been implicated in depression, anxiety, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and autism spectrum disorder. Findings Here Fibre feeds the microbes in the gut, meaning that if we want the beneficial ones to survive (those that produce metabolites which can influence behaviour and mood), they need to be fed! 3) It Can Decrease GERD Low dietary fibre intake is regularly associated with decreased stomach and gut motility and delayed emptying, which can contribute to the risk of gastroesophageal reflux and its associated disease (GERD.) It is thought that dietary fibre binds nitric oxide and diminishes its negative influence on lower oesophageal sphincter pressure too. Fibre is thought to decrease gastric acidity, lowering the number of refluxes, and reducing their damaging capacity. The common treatments for GERD include suppression of gastric acid secretion, but this can be problematic. The use of proton pump inhibitors is associated with a decrease in bacterial richness in the gut microbiome and quite often pathogenic bacteria are increased. This imbalance, known as gut dysbiosis, has been associated with a range of health issues including, not surprisingly, intestinal disorders like irritable bowel syndrome, along with extra-intestinal disease such as allergy, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. The addition of fibre to your dog’s diet has great safety margins when compared to some conventional treatments of GERD. Natural Guide for Acid Reflux in Dogs 4) Fibre for Anal Gland Health Fibre can be a great way to modulate transit time in the gut. Diarrhoea often results when transit time is too fast. Constipation often results when transit time is too slow. The perfect stool is a result of “just right” transit time, and when this occurs, we support anal gland expression. For a full expression, the faeces should be firm, and pick-up-able. This is why poor bowel movements can contribute to anal glands becoming impacted. 4 Cornerstones for Healthy Anal Glands Feeding Fibre No matter what you feed, you can add fibre to your dog’s bowl. Some great sources include: Broccoli – chop and lightly steam or blend. Berries – we generally love berries for their antioxidant properties, but they also pack a fair punch in terms of fibre content. Great berries to include are: raspberries, blueberries and cranberries. Mushrooms – again, whilst we tend to talk about mushrooms for their beta-glucan content and therefore their role in supporting immune function, they are great sources of fibre for the dog. Sauté them before serving. Leafy greens – packing an immense nutritional punch, being a vegetable, they also contain indigestible fibre. Kale, spinach or Swiss chard are great additions to the bowl. Blend or lightly steam before feeding. Carrots – you’ll notice the fibre content if you’ve ever fed these to your dog and noticed an orange tinted poop afterwards. Raw carrots can be fed as snacks or training treats, but you can also feed them cooked! Apples – another snack or training treat, apples pack a fair fibre punch! Chop into slices, just remember to avoid the seeds! Pumpkin – one of the foods all dog owners should have in! We know the benefits of feeding pumpkin when our dogs are a little under the weather, but we don’t always talk about the fibre content. Pumpkin also contains vitamins A, C, and E, as well as minerals like iron and potassium. Offering pumpkin to your dog is a great way to support their digestive health. It’s clear to see that the inclusion of fibre in your dog’s diet has a range of benefits, whether you feed dry, wet, cooked, or raw. Be mindful if your dog isn’t used to eating fibrous foods, however, introduce slow and steady. If you would like any support with your dog’s dietary needs, then check out our services to see how we can help. Thanks for reading, MPN Team
It’s a sad realisation when we notice our dog getting a little stiffer or moving a little slower. Of course, we take it upon ourselves to make them as comfortable as possible. Joint degradation is a normal part of life, but as we know, certain things can speed it up. Alongside this, there are things we can do to potentially limit some of the damage, and food, nutrients and herbs that can help modulate the inflammatory process. We have compiled 5 of our favourite herbs for joint care in the dog. Joint Degradation Joint degradation is characterised by inadequate production of compounds necessary to its structure, along with reduced collagen synthesis. This can be a result of physical stress, trauma, autoimmunity, or aging. Here, inflammation is upregulated, creating further breakdown. It results in weak, damaged, or inflamed tissue with restricted or painful movement. Tissues are in the firing line when carrying out any physical activity and they may be susceptible to physical stress, strain, or trauma. Unexpected force or sudden changes in direction or speed are also more likely to cause issues (read: overweight dogs and those who chase balls regularly). This can be a particular risk during the winter, when walking in snowy, icy, or even muddy conditions. Tendons and ligaments are dependent on physical activity to develop, but it must be in moderation and appropriate. Joint degradation therefore has a number of risk factors: Nutritional insufficiency Physical stress or trauma Overuse – aging, Excess weight Autoimmunity The main concern in joint degradation is inflammation and the associated pain. And this is where our wonderful herbs can come in. 1) Horsetail Horsetail is a popular fern that has been used as an herbal remedy since the times of the Greek and Roman Empires. It grows wildly in Northern Europe and America, as well as in other moist places with temperate climates. It has a long, green, and densely branched stem that grows from spring to autumn. This plant contains a range of beneficial compounds, but we are most interested in its silica content and also its ability to function as an antioxidant. Silica, which is also present in bones, improves the formation, density, and consistency of bone and cartilage tissue by enhancing collagen synthesis and improving the absorption and use of calcium. Horsetail is rich in phenolic compounds which as we know are a group of antioxidants inhibiting oxidative damage. Not only this, but studies into rheumatoid arthritis have shown that horsetail has a down-regulatory effect on pro-inflammatory factors. It is often described as a great regulator of inflammation. Findings Here 2) Turmeric Turmeric is a flowering plant, but it’s the root we’re most interested in. Part of the ginger family, it looks very similar, but it’s the smell that helps you differentiate. Turmeric is frequently used in humans, to help with a range of diseases and conditions including skin, pulmonary, aches, pains, sprains, liver issues and cancer. Curcumin specifically is argued to be anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-tumour and helpful in wound healing. Used in Ayurvedic and Chinese Medicine for centuries, it is now finding a place in Western Medicine. Many joint issues feature chronic inflammation, and in supporting our dogs, we aim to reduce pain and inflammation. So here comes turmeric with its anti-inflammatory properties! Several studies have shown that when supplemented with turmeric, arthritic dogs show a marked improvement in their daily life activity without any side effects! Findings Here 3) Ginger A University of Miami study concluded that ginger extract could be a substitute to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). The study compared the effects of a highly concentrated ginger extract to placebo in 247 patients with osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee. The ginger reduced pain and stiffness in knee joints by 40 percent over the placebo. Research shows that ginger affects certain inflammatory processes at a cellular level, and as we know, many pathologies involving the joints have inflammation as the key player. There are more than 1300 types of ginger plant, and they contain a wide range of nutrients, including: vitamin C vitamin B6 the minerals magnesium, potassium, and copper gingerols, shogaols, paradols, and other phytonutrients and polyphenols Gingerol, shogaol, and paradols all have antioxidant properties, and gingerol and paradols are also anti-inflammatory. 4) Boswellia Serrata Boswellia resin can inhibit a branch of the arachidonic acid cascade related to leukotriene synthesis seemingly without affecting prostaglandin synthesis. It is considered that the excessive formation of leukotrienes is responsible for chronic inflammation. In 2004, researchers investigated the role of boswellia in inflammatory joint disease. After two weeks of treatment, an overall efficacy of the dietary supplement was evident in 71% of 24 eligible dogs. A statistically significant reduction of severity and resolution of typical clinical signs in individual animals, such as intermittent lameness, local pain and stiff gait, were reported after 6 weeks. Effects of external factors that aggravate lameness, such as “lameness when moving” and “lameness after a long rest” diminished gradually. They therefore concluded that boswellia herbal dietary supplement provided symptomatic support in canine osteoarthritic disease. Findings Here 5) Ashwagandha Ashwagandha is an evergreen shrub that grows in India, the Middle East, and parts of Africa. It has a long history of use in traditional medicine. We most commonly use it for its calming effect on anxiety symptoms along with building stress resilience, so it can help modulate any mood disturbances alongside chronic pain. But this wonderful herb may also act as a pain reliever, preventing signals from travelling along the central nervous system. It is also thought to have anti-inflammatory properties. One hundred and twenty-five patients with joint pain were screened at an Ayurvedic hospital in New Delhi, India. They ingested ashwagandha powder daily for three weeks to establish any symptomatic improvement. A significant change in post-treatment scores of tender joint counts, swollen joint counts, physician global assessment score, patient global assessment score, pain assessment score and patient self-assessed disability index score were reported. The researchers concluded that ashwagandha has a potential role
Whilst we thought we were leaving acne behind in our teenage years, sadly, our feline friends can and do suffer with it. Appearing as red bumps, black dots or dirt on your cat’s chin, cat acne is the result of the hair follicles (more commonly the ones on their chin) becoming “plugged!” There are a number of reasons why this condition affects cats, so let’s take a look at it in a little more detail, with some of our top tips to tackle it. What is Cat Acne? Cat acne is more technically termed follicular keratinization. This is when there is an over production of keratin which is a protein found in the outer layer of skin. This excess keratin becomes trapped in the hair follicle and starts to form pustules or pimples. Cat acne is similar to human acne; characterised by the development of folliculitis (inflammation of the hair follicle). What are the Signs and Symptoms of Cat Acne? Dirty appearance on the chin Lesions on the chin Blackheads/infected follicles Swollen lips What is particularly interesting is that cats can experience acne on other parts of their body too, but it is more common on their chin. Potential Causes of Cat Acne The Skin’s Immune Barrier Function The skin is the largest organ of your cat’s body. It consists of three major layers: The Epidermis – (Epi – upon or above) this is the outer layer of skin, the protective layer. The Dermis – the dermis supports and nourishes the outer layer. It provides strength and elasticity. Here you will find collagen fibres, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hair follicles. You will also find cells that release histamine and other inflammatory mediators when faced with an allergy or injury. The Subcutis – (sub meaning under or below) this in the innermost layer of the skin, where you will find fat and muscles. Subcutaneous fat provides insulation, padding and storage for reserve energy. Not only does the structure of the skin prevent water and electrolyte loss to help maintain body homeostasis, but it forms a protective barrier which helps protect against infections, parasites, and the elements. This is the often-forgotten role of the skin – that it forms part of the immune system. If this barrier is compromised, we start to see issues on the surface (in the form of skin disease), along with body wide inflammatory issues. What Can Compromise the Skin Barrier? Over-grooming This can be a common behaviour in a stressed cat. They may over-groom in an attempt to soothe. You will notice bald patches, but once your cat has removed their hair, it wont be long until they start compromising their skin too! Watch for signs of stress in your cat, they may become more withdrawn than usual, they may hide more often or become less tolerant of people. In more severe cases they may toilet in inappropriate places. Pheromone diffusers can be great options to help calm a stressed cat, but also giving them plenty of opportunities to hide. In shelter environments, cats have noted huge reductions in stress-related behaviours in less than 10 days, when they have been allowed to hide. It also didn’t affect their ability to be rehomed. In short, those cats allowed to hide were less-stressed, more eager to approach strangers and more active. Findings Here Cats are largely solitary animals. They have always marked their territories by way of scent. They rub their facial glands around their environment and also mark by way of urine, faeces and anal glands. Not only does hiding allow them to watch for threats from one direction only, (the one way into the box) it is also a confined space where they are very quickly surrounded by their own scent. The key is to have ample hiding spaces. So, if you have more than one cat, they each need their own space to hide. Free from dogs, children and other territory intruders. You could simply place carboard boxes around your home, perhaps in the usual places your cat chooses to hide, or you can buy activity centres with boxes attached. Cocoon style beds are also perfect; just remember to buy one with removable, washable covers. Overgrooming can also be a sign of boredom – it often becomes more common in winter, when cats are spending more time indoors. If this is a concern, provide plenty of opportunities for your cat to engage in natural behaviour, within the home. Study after study shows us that enriched environments reduce the stress-hormone found in stressed cat’s urine considerably. Allergens If pesky allergens or irritants come into contact with the body, they soon feel the full wrath of the immune response. What starts with inflammation, will venture to a targeted attack in order to eradicate the invader. But this does consist of redness, heat, and pain. This can result in pets scratching in an attempt to remove the less than comfortable inflammatory response. In the process, not only has the skin been exposed to an allergen, resulting in an inflammatory response, but paired with scratching, the skin barrier is compromised further, which then becomes a vicious cycle. Remove potential allergens from the home where possible, this can be the washing detergent you use on fabrics and cat beds, to the bowl your cat eats and drinks from. Ceramic or glass plates often bring great relief to cats suffering with cat acne. As plates are flat, they are also in less contact whilst eating. The same also applies to the food you feed your cat. As we know, a huge number of immune cells are found in the gut – what this means is that the gut trains the immune system in what to respond to, and what to ignore. When we feed a food high in antigenic compounds, the immune system responds in true inflammatory style! Not only this but there is a direct link between the gut and skin health – when gut health is compromised, we
Obesity is one of the most common issues that cat owners bring to My Pet Nutritionist with good reason. We know that being overweight increases the risk factors for developing: Cancer Diabetes Heart disease Osteoarthritis and degeneration of joints Urinary issues Surgery complications Respiratory difficulties Kidney disease In a nutshell, being overweight significantly compromises quality of life and actually, the length of it too! So, let’s take a look at some of the common reasons why your cat may be overweight, and we’ll share our top tips for tackling obesity in cats. Is Your Cat Overweight? Obesity is defined as an accumulation of excessive amounts of adipose tissue. It is generally a state of positive energy balance. When food is ingested, it is digested and metabolised. The body uses the nutrients it needs and converts the main macronutrients to energy. Macronutrients consumed over and above those that are needed, are converted into adipose tissue, for use at a later stage. Cat body scores run from 1-9. Ideal bodyweights score 4-5, ribs are not visible but easily palpable, there is an obvious waist and there is minimal/small amount of abdominal fat. Body scores are a much more appropriate approach to establishing body proportion in cats as weight doesn’t accommodate for breed differences or activity levels. Your cat is overweight if: Ribs are difficult to palpate under body fat, Waist barely visible or absent, There is rounding of the abdomen. Why is My Cat Overweight? Perception Do you know your pet is overweight? In an 8000-household study, 68% of surveyed owners report thinking their pet is the perfect weight. 67% of surveyed owners did not see obesity as a concern. This is in contrast to that reported by vets, who show concern that over half of all pets are overweight. Do we simply not see that our pet is overweight and therefore aren’t employing any tactics to manage it? Food Intake Most foods on the market include a feeding guideline based on weight. One of the most common mistakes made by owners is to feed based on the current weight of their pet, not the ideal weight (when tackling a weight issue). Not only that, but weight is a bit of a misnomer anyway. With so many different breeds it is difficult to establish standardisation. It’s important to feed the pet in front of you. Energy requirements vary depending on lifestyle, age, activity, and time of year. Cats for example may be less active in the winter. The type of food you are feeding your pet will also play a part. Starch is the storage from of carbohydrates found in plants and as we know, dry pet foods have large quantities of starch. Starch can be divided into rapidly digestible starch, slowly digestible starch and resistant starch. Rapidly digestible starch can be produced by the exposure to heat, pressure, or moisture decrease (read: exactly what happens during pet food manufacturing). Rapidly digestible starch results in a blood sugar spike, calling the pancreas to action. Insulin shuttles glucose into cells that need it, but also facilitates its entry into adipose tissue! Insulin also stops the breakdown of fat and prevents the breakdown or triglycerides into fatty acids (causing a build-up in fat cells). This is why we always advocate feeding a fresh food diet. Cats are obligate carnivores; in that they get everything they need from animal tissue. Quite often, removing a dry food from a cat’s diet results in significant weight improvement. It’s a Family Affair One of the biggest challenges with feeding cats is getting everyone in the home on board. Cats tend to tell everyone in the home that they still haven’t been fed! This results in many mealtimes, served by many different family members. To tackle this, work out an appropriate food intake in any one day and portion this into a Tupperware. Ensure all family members understand this – when the food has gone, the food has gone – if most of the food has gone by lunchtime, what’s left needs to be kept until dinnertime! Account for Physical Activity We have a nuance in the cat. Some are indoor cats, where others are outdoor cats. This brings a significant difference in activity levels. Whilst the calorie in:calorie out model of obesity is simplistic, it is a consideration to make. For the indoor cat who engages in little physical activity, their food intake may need to be significantly lower than thought. We can enrich their lifestyle with more opportunities for exercise; through activity centres or play but we should also consider reducing their food intake if they are becoming overweight. We should also account for mobility challenges in the ageing cat and how this will influence their nutrient needs. Treat Intake Keep a log on how many treats you are offering your cat, whether it’s scraps from your plate or treats you have bought in. These are easy to nip in the bud if you are trying to manage your cat’s weight; the key is to ensure your cat is satiated from their mealtimes. Cats Are Not Small Dogs Be Mindful of Behaviour For some cats, being demanding can be a problematic behaviour rather than a request for nutrients. Does your cat have plenty of opportunities to engage in their normal behaviour? Do they have access to safe toys and regular opportunities to play with both people and by themselves? Can they rest, undisturbed when they choose? Can they meet their basic needs easily? Can they access food, water, beds, and litter without being disturbed or scared by other pets/people? Obesity in cats is a significant concern, and one that can impair their health and lifespan. Our top tips include: Opt for a fresh food diet (ditch the dry!) Feed the cat in front of you, based on their age, activity level and lifestyle Get the whole family on board If you would like to learn more about obesity in pets, we have a number of other
When we talk about nutrition we tend to focus on the protein and fat requirements of our pets (the carbohydrate requirement gets us all a little hot under the collar) and it stands to reason because they are macronutrients. What this means is that they are required in larger quantities for optimal bodily function. But we also have micronutrients, and despite them being required in lower quantities, they are still critical to health. Under the umbrella of micronutrients, we have vitamins and minerals. We have some helpful blogs on minerals here: Why Does My Dog Need Minerals – Part One Why Does My Dog Need Minerals – Part Two But, as vitamins are just as important, here at My Pet Nutritionist we thought we’d pop together a blog on why our dogs need them too! What Are Vitamins? Vitamins are defined by their physical and physiological characteristics. Vitamins are needed in minute quantities to function as essential enzymes, enzyme precursors of coenzymes in many of the body’s metabolic processes. Generally, vitamins are not synthesised by the body and must therefore be provided by food (but our canine companions have a trick up their sleeve with vitamin C for example). Fat vs. Water Soluble Vitamins Vitamins are split into fat soluble and water-soluble vitamins. In this blog, we will focus on the water-soluble vitamins. If you would like to learn more about the fat-soluble vitamins, then check out our blog here: Why Does My Dog Need Vitamins? Part One – The Fat-Soluble Vitamins The Water-Soluble Vitamins Water soluble vitamins are depleted at a faster rate because of limited storage and are less likely to cause toxicity but more likely to become deficient. Water soluble vitamins are absorbed by way of active transport, some vitamins require a carrier protein, like with B12 cobalamin (intrinsic factor), where others require a sodium dependent, carrier-mediated absorption pump. The B Vitamins The B complex vitamins are all water-soluble vitamins that were originally grouped together because of similar metabolic functions and occurrence in foods. These nine vitamins act as coenzymes for specific cellular enzymes that are involved in energy metabolism and tissue synthesis. Coenzymes are small organic molecules that must be present with an enzyme for a specific reaction to occur, like a key being required for a lock to engage. The following vitamins are all involved in the conversion of food to energy: thiamine riboflavin niacin pyridoxine pantothenic acid biotin The following are all important for cell growth and maintenance and/or blood cell synthesis: folate B12 cobalamin choline (it’s not actually a vitamin, but its often grouped with the B vitamins due to their similarities) Spotlight On… Biotin: Known as Vitamin H, for Haar and Haut (hair and skin), we know it more commonly as vitamin B7, or Biotin. One of the B vitamins, Biotin, helps the body convert food into energy. Specifically, biotin is involved in gluconeogenesis, which as we know is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources. Biotin is involved in fatty acid synthesis, which as we know, is key in skin health. Biotin is also involved in amino acid breakdown. Deficiency of biotin has been associated with immune depression and reduced collagen synthesis, another key consideration in structural health. Biotin deficiency is rare in those who ingest a varied diet, but symptoms in the dog include alopecia, dull coat, brittle hair and scaly skin. The use of antibiotics in the dog decreases the bacterial population of the large intestine which increases the dietary requirement for biotin. Rancid fats also inactive biotin, along with feed rancidity (storage conditions and length). Chlorine inactivates biotin, so this is of concern if dogs are offered chlorinated drinking water. Findings Here Many foods contain biotin, so opt for organ meats, eggs, fish, meat, seeds, and nuts. Fruits like raspberries also contain biotin, and vegetables like sweet potato. There are however some concerns that egg whites contain avidin which binds to biotin, making it unavailable for intestinal absorption. Deficiency has only occurred when over 30% of the diet consists of raw eggs. So, like all things, moderation is key. Vitamin B12 Vitamin B12, also known as cobalamin, is critical for a range of functions in the body. A common deficiency in human vegetarians, disorders of cobalamin metabolism are seemingly increasing in small animal medicine. The causes of deficiency range from chronic gastrointestinal disease to hereditary disease, but what is clear is the health impact of low levels. Vitamin B12 is essential for DNA and RNA synthesis and for cellular energy production. All cells in all bodies need to know what they are doing, and they need energy to do them! There are no known naturally occurring bioactive forms of B12 in plant sources. This is because B12 is synthesised by the bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract of animals, and then absorbed by the host animals. B12 is concentrated in their tissues, which is then eaten by other animals. Sources of B12 include red meat, fish, dairy and eggs. B12 can be depleted in times of stress. This occurs from a range of mechanisms. Stress is a physiological response; in the presence of a threat, the sympathetic nervous system kicks in for fight or flight. Energy is diverted to the brain and muscles as these are the parts of the body needed to escape. Once the threat has been resolved, the parasympathetic nervous system kicks in, returning energy to other bodily functions, which is why it is known as the rest and digest phase. In times of chronic stress, digestive functions can be significantly altered, which can result in malabsorption of nutrients, in this case B12. There are also suggestions that gastric acid can vary during times of stress, increasing or decreasing depending on the personality of the host. Changes in stomach acid secretion can also affect the digestion and absorption of nutrients. Can Stress Affect My Dog’s Digestive System? The last mechanism by which B12 levels are affected during times of stress is due to its role
